Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is increasingly recognized as a systemic disorder characterized by complex metabolic, inflammatory, and cardiovascular interactions [1]. Beyond the progressive decline in renal function, CKD is associated with a constellation of extra-renal manifestations, including accelerated atherosclerosis, arterial hypertension, immune dysregulation, and metabolic disturbances. Among the mechanisms linking these processes, the bidirectional relationship between the kidney and the gastrointestinal tract—the so-called kidney–gut axis—has emerged as a compelling and integrative pathophysiological framework [2].
