Published: 6 September 2025
Author(s): Laura de Lisio, Remo Poto, Laura Andreea Ceparano, Grazia Daniela Femminella, Antonietta Liotti, Veronica De Rosa, Gilda Varricchi, Giuseppe Rengo
Issue: October 2025
Section: Review Article

Human longevity has increased worldwide, partly due to medical improvements, better sanitation and easier access to clean water [1]. As the population ages, age-related diseases are leading to greater public health concerns. Immunological dysfunctions associated with aging contribute to reduced length of disease-free living [1,2]. Aging is accompanied by dysfunctions of both innate and adaptive immune systems, a process referred to as immunosenescence [3]. This condition is characterized by chronic low-grade inflammation that is associated with high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, termed “inflammaging” [4].

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