Published: 15 September 2025
Author(s): Juan Heng, Zhong-Tang Li, Dan-Dan Yao, Xin-Yan Li, Ming-Xuan Cui, Zuo-Lin Li
Issue: October 2025
Section: Review Article

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a highly prevalent, and progressive comorbidity that affects >10 % of the population worldwide [1–2]. Heart failure (HF) is also a common, disabling, and deadly condition, recognized as a major cause of adult mortality [3–4]. In clinical practice, CKD and HF frequently coexist and represents a global epidemic, due to progressive aging of the population and several co-contributing factors, such as hypertension, diabetes, and obesity [5–7]. Accordingly, HF is nearly universal among patients with advanced CKD patients, particularly those with end-stage renal disease [8].

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